Going over the header fully reveals that it is removing the domain from some sender and some receiver tags
Delivered-To: Domain present
Return-Path: Domain removed
Received-SPF: pass (google.com: best guess record for domain of bounce@com designates xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx as permitted sender) client-ip=xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx; (this might send the bounce to google.com?
To: removed
From: removed
Sender: removed
Other emails I looked at from other sources including vbulletin default emails do not have this problem.
I hope this helps
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